Cómo citar
Descargas
Métricas Alternativas
Dimensions
Resumen
Los arrecifes coralinos son ecosistemas altamente dinámicos, a menudo afectados por diversas perturbaciones naturales. Sin embargo, descensos dramáticos en la cobertura coralina durante décadas recientes llevan a preguntar si tales descensos han sido causados por crecientes impactos antropogénicos. Con este fin, la dinámica de la cobertura de coral y algas se estudió a partir de datos recolectados entre 1998-2014 de 20 transectos fijos de 10 m a dos profundidades en dos sitios de La Azufrada, un arrecife coralino libre de impactos humanos locales, situado en Isla Gorgona, Colombia. La cobertura coralina disminuyó de 66,9 % en 1998 a 39,4 % en 2008, pero luego aumentó a 50,7 % en 2014. La cobertura de algas carnosas y de césped fue baja entre 1998-2004, aumentó a 49,5 % en 2007 y luego disminuyó a < 33,0 %. Las algas coralinas incrustantes fueron las más escasas hasta 2009, cuando aumentaron al disminuir las algas carnosas y de césped. La variación temporal fue diferente entre profundidades con las áreas someras exhibiendo los mayores descensos en la cobertura coralina hasta 2008, pero una recuperación significativa desde entonces. En contraste, la cobertura coralina en áreas profundas disminuyó sólo ligeramente. La exposición subaérea prolongada de los corales durante mareas bajas extremas parece impulsar un ciclo de perturbación y recuperación de los corales. El crecimiento de los corales hace que el arrecife sea más propenso a la exposición subaérea, después de lo cual los corales se blanquean, mueren y son colonizados por algas filamentosas y carnosas. Los erizos de mar y los peces herbívoros aumentan su abundancia en respuesta al aumento de la cobertura de algas y controlan el crecimiento de algas, dejando el sustrato cubierto por algas coralinas incrustantes que lo adecúan para el asentamiento de larvas de coral producidas sexualmente. La fragmentación por agentes físicos y biológicos (como los coralívoros) incrementa el reclutamiento de coral y el arrecife entra en una fase de recuperación coralina. Aunque este arrecife es resiliente a la exposición subaérea porque está protegido de perturbaciones antropogénicas, las crecientes amenazas del cambio climático global pueden comprometer su futura resiliencia. © 2017. Acad. Colomb. Cienc. Ex. Fis. Nat.Citas
Aronson, R. B. & Precht, W. F. (1997). Stasis, biological disturbance, and community structure of a Holocene coral reef. Paleobiology. 23: 326-346.
Aronson, R. B., Precht, W. F. Toscano, M. A. & Koltes, K. H. (2002). The 1998 bleaching event and its aftermath on a coral reef in Belize. Marine Biology. 141: 435-447.
Baker, A. C., Glynn, P. W. & Riegl, B. (2008). Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of longterm impacts, recovery trends and future outlook. Estuarine, coastal and shelf science. 80 (4): 435-471.
Bastidas-Salamanca, M., Rangel-Buitrago, N., Morales-Giraldo, D., Ricaurte, C., Gómez-López, D. I., Navas-Camacho, R., Navarrete, S. M., Alonso, D. A., Lizbeth, C., Vivas-Aguas, J., Obando-Madera, P. S., Rodríguez-Rodríguez.
J. A., Victoria-Licero, L., Villanueva, L. & Perdomo, V. (2014). Estado del ambiente y de los ecosistemas marinos y costeros. In: INVEMAR. Informe del estado de los ambientes y recursos marinos y costeros en Colombia: Año 2013. (p. 23-82). Santa Marta, Colombia: INVEMAR, Serie de Publicaciones Periódicas No. 3.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B. & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software. 67 (1): 1-48.
Birkeland, C. (1997). Life and death of coral reefs. New York, USA: Chapman & Hall.
Birrell, C. L., McCook, L. J., Willis, B. L. & Díaz-Pulido, G. A. (2008). Effects of benthic algae on the replenishment of corals and the implications for the resilience of coral reefs. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review. 46: 25-63.
Blanco, J. F. (2009). The hydroclimatology of Gorgona Island: Seasonal and ENSO-related patterns. Actualidades Biológicas. 31 (91): 111-121.
Brown, B. E. (1997a). Disturbances to reefs in recent times. In C. Birkeland (ed.), Life and death of coral reefs (p. 354-379). New York, USA: Chapman & Hall.
Brown, B. E. (1997b). Coral bleaching: causes and consequences. Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium. 1: 65-74.
Bruno, J. F. & Selig, E. R. (2007). Regional decline of coral cover in the Indo-Pacific: timing, extent, and subregional comparisons. PLoS one. 2 (8): e711.
Bryant, D., Burke, L., McManus, J. & Spalding, M. (1998). Reefs at risk: a map-based indicator of threats to the world’s coral reefs. Washington D. C., USA: World Resources Institute.
Buddemeier, R. W., Kleypas, J. A. & Aronson, R. B. (2004). Coral reefs and climate change. Potential contribution of climate change to stresses coral reef ecosystems. Arlington, Virginia, USA: Pew Center on Global Climate Change.
CARICOMP. (2001). CARICOMP Methods manual, levels 1 and 2: Manual of methods for mapping and monitoring of physical and biological parameters in the coastal zone of the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: CARICOMP Data Management Center, University of the West Indies.
Carpenter, R. C. (1990). Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum. I. Long-term effects on sea urchin population dynamics and coral reef algal communities. Marine Biology. 104: 67-77.
Castrillón-Cifuentes, A. L., Lozano-Cortés, D. F. & Zapata, F. A. (2017). Effect of short-term subaerial exposure on the cauliflower coral, Pocillopora damicornis, during a simulated extreme low-tide event. Coral Reefs. 1-14.
Castrillón-Cifuentes, A. L., Muñoz, C. G. & Zapata, F. A. (2015). Reproductive patterns of the coral Pocillopora damicornis at Gorgona Island, Colombian Pacific Ocean. Marine Biology Research. 11 (10): 1065-1075.
Connell, J. H. & Slatyer, R. O. (1977). Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization. The American Naturalist. 111 (982): 1119-1144.
Connell, J. H. (1978). Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science. 199: 1302-1310.
Connell, J. H. (1997). Disturbance and recovery of coral assemblages. Coral Reefs. 16 Suppl.: S101-S113.
Connell, J. H., Hughes, T. P. & Wallace, C. C. (1997). A 30-year study of coral abundance, recruitment, and disturbance at several scales in space and time. Ecological Monographs. 67: 461-488.
Connell, J. H., Hughes, T. P., Wallace, C. C., Tanner, J. E., Harms, K. E. & Kerr, A. M. (2004). A long-term study of competition and diversity of corals. Ecological Monographs. 74: 179-210.
Cortés, J. & Jiménez, C. (2003). Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific of Costa Rica: history, research and status. In J. Cortés (ed.), Latin America coral reefs (p. 361-385).
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science B. V. De’ath, G., Fabricius, K. E., Sweatman, H. & Puotinen, M. (2012). The 27– ear decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (44): 17995-17999.
Devis-Morales, A., García-Hansen, I., Malikov, I. & Villegas- Bolaños, N. L. (2002). Compilación oceanográfica de la cuenca Pacífica colombiana. Serie Publicaciones Especiales Vol. 1, Tumaco, Colombia. Centro Control Contaminación del Pacífico (CCCP).
Díaz, J. M., Barrios, L. M., Cendales, M. H., Garzón-Ferreira, J., Geister, J., López-Victoria, M., Ospina, G. H., Parra- Velandia, F., Pinzón, J., Vargas-Ángel, B., Zapata, F. A & Zea, S. (2000). Áreas coralinas de Colombia. Santa Marta, Colombia: INVEMAR, Serie de Publicaciones Especiales 5.
Díaz, J. M., Díaz-Pulido, G., Garzón-Ferreira, J., Geister, J., Sánchez, J. & Zea, S. (1996). Atlas de los arrecifes coralinos del Caribe colombiano. Complejos arrecifales oceánicos. Santa Marta, Colombia: INVEMAR, Serie de Publicaciones Especiales 2.
Díaz, J. M., Garzón-Ferreira, J. & Zea, S. (1995). Los arrecifes coralinos de la Isla de San Andrés, Colombia: Estado actual y perspectivas para su conservación. Bogotá, Colombia: Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Colección Jorge Álvarez Lleras 7.
Díaz, J. M., Pinzón, J. H, Perdomo, A. M., Barrios, L. M. & López-Victoria, M. (2001). Generalidades. In L.M. Barrios & M. López- ictoria (eds.), Gorgona Marina: Contribución al conocimiento de una isla única (p. 17-26). Santa Marta, Colombia: INVEMAR, Serie de Publicaciones Especiales 7.
Doropoulos, C., Roff, G., Visser, M. S. & Mumby, P. J. (2016). Sensitivity of coral recruitment to subtle shifts in early community succession. Ecology. 98 (2): 304-314.
Eakin, C. M. & Glynn, P. W. (1996). Low tidal exposures and reef mortalities in the eastern Pacific. Coral Reefs. 15: 120.
Eakin, C. M., Lough, J. M., Heron, S. F. (2009). Climate variability and change: monitoring data and evidence for increased coral bleaching stress. In: M. J. H. van Oppen & J. M. Lough (eds.), Coral Bleaching: Patterns, processes, causes and consequences (p. 41-67). Berlin, Germany: Ecological Studies 205, Springer- erlag.
Enfield, D. B. (2001). Evolution and historical perspective of the 1997-1998 El Niño-Southern Oscillation event. Bulletin of Marine Science. 69: 7-25.
Enochs, I. C. & Glynn, P. W. (2017). Corallivory in the Eastern Pacific. In: P. W. Glynn, D. P. Manzello & I. C. Enochs (eds.), Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific: Persistence and loss in a dynamic environment (p. 315-337). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Fabricius, K. E. (2005). Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 50: 125-146.
Gardner, T. A., Côté, I. M., Gill, J. A., Grant, A. & Watkinson, A. R. (2003). Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science. 301: 958-960.
Gardner, T. A., Côté, I. M., Gill, J. A., Grant, A. & Watkinson, A. R. (2005). Hurricanes and Caribbean coral reefs: impacts, recovery patterns, and role in long-term decline. Ecology. 86: 174-184.
Garzón-Ferreira, J. & Kielman, M. (1994). Extensive mortality of corals in the Colombian Caribbean during the last two decades. In R. N. Ginsburg (ed.), Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs. Health, Hazards and History (p. 247-253). Miami, USA: RSMAS, University of Miami.
Garzón-Ferreira, J. & Rodríguez-Ramírez, A. (2010). SIMAC: Development and implementation of a coral reef monitoring network in Colombia. Revista de Biología Tropical. 58: 67-80.
Garzón-Ferreira, J. (1997). Arrecifes Coralinos: ¿Un tesoro camino a la extinción? Colombia: Ciencia y Tecnología. 15: 11-19.
Garzón-Ferreira, J., Cortes, J., Croquer, A., Guzmán, H., Leao, Z. & Rodríguez-Ramírez, A. (2002a). Status of coral reefs in southern tropical America in 2000-2002: Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Panama and Venezuela. In C. Wilkinson (ed.), Status of coral reefs of the World: 2002 (p. 343-360). Townsville, Australia: Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS).
Giraldo, A., Rodríguez-Rubio, E. & Zapata, F. A. (2008). Condiciones oceanográficas en Isla Gorgona, Pacífico oriental tropical de Colombia. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research. 36: 121-128.
Gladfelter, W. B. (1982). White band disease in Acropora palmata:Implication for the structure and growth of shallow reefs. Bulletin of Marine Science. 32: 639-643.
Glynn, P. W. (1976). Some physical and biological determinants of coral community structure in the eastern Pacific. Ecological Monographs. 46: 431-456.
Glynn, P. W. (1990). Coral mortality and disturbances to coral reefs in the tropical eastern Pacific. In P. W. Glynn (ed.), Global ecological consequences of the 1982-83 El Niño-Southern Oscillation (p. 55-126). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
Glynn, P. W. (1993). Coral reef bleaching: ecological perspectives. Coral Reefs. 12: 1-17.
Glynn, P. W., Colley, S. B., Carpizo-Ituarte, E. & Richmond, R. H. (2017b). Coral Reproduction in the Eastern Pacific. In: P. W. Glynn, D. P. Manzello & I. C. Enochs (eds.), Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific: Persistence and loss in a dynamic environment (p. 435-476). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Glynn, P. W., Cortés-Núñez, J., Guzmán-Espinal, H. M. & Richmond, R. H. (1988). El Niño (1982-83) associated coral mortality and relationship to sea surface temperature deviations in the tropical eastern Pacific. Proceedings of the 6th International Coral Reef Symposium. 3: 237-243.
Glynn, P. W., Fong, P. (2006). Patterns of reef coral recovery by the regrowth of surviving tissues following the 1997 – 98 El Niño warming and 2000, 2001 upwelling cool events in Panama, eastern Pacific. Proceedings of 10th International Coral Reef Symposium. 624-630.
Glynn, P. W., Maté, J. L., Baker, A. C. & Calderón, M. (2001). Coral Bleaching and mortality in Panama and Ecuador during the 1997-1998 El Niño- Southern oscillation event: Spatial and temporal patterns and comparisons with the 1982-1983 event. Bulletin of Marine Science. 69: 79-109.
Glynn, P. W., Mones, A. B., Podestá, G. P. Colbert, A. & Colgan, M. W. (2017a). El Niño-Southern Oscillation: Effects on Eastern Pacific coral reefs and associated biota. In P. W. Glynn, D. P. Manzello & I. C. Enochs (eds.), Coral Reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific: Persistence and loss in a dynamic environment (p. 251-290). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Glynn, P. W., Prahl, H. von. & Guhl, F. (1982). Coral reef of Gorgona Island, Colombia, with special reference to corallivores and the influence on community structural reef development. Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas de Punta Betín. 12: 185-214.
Grassle, J. F. (1973). Variety in coral reef communities. In O. A. Jones & R. Endean (eds.), Biology and geology of coral reefs, Vol. 2 (p. 247-270). New York, USA: Academic Press.
Guzmán, H. M. & Cortés, J. (2001). Changes in reef community structure after fifteen years of natural disturbances in the eastern Pacific (Costa Rica). Bulletin of Marine Science. 69: 133-149.
Guzmán, H. M., López, J.D. (1991). Diet of the corallivorous pufferfish Arothon meleagris (Pisces: Tetraodontidae) at Gorgona Island, Colombia. Revista de Biología Tropical. 39: 203-206.
Harrington, L., Fabricius, K., De’Ath, G. & Negri, A. (2004). Recognition and selection of settlement substrata determine post-settlement survival in corals. Ecology. 85 (12): 3428-3437.
Harvell, C. D., Mitchell, C. E, Ward, J. R., Altizer, S., Dobson, A. P., Ostfeld, R. S. & Samuel, M. D. (2002). Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota. Science. 296:2158-2162.
Heyward, A. J. & Negri, A. P. (1999). Natural inducers for coral larval metamorphosis. Coral reefs. 18 (3): 273-279.
Highsmith, R. C. (1982). Reproduction by fragmentation in corals. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 7 (2): 207-226.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P. J., Hooten, A. J., Steneck, R. S., Greenfield, P., Gómez, E., Harvell, C. D., Sale, P. F., Edwards, A. J., Caldeira, K., Knowlton, N., Eakin, C. M., Iglesias-Prieto, R., Muthiga, N., Bradbury, R. H., Dubi, A., & Hatziolos, M. E. (2007). Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science. 318 (5857): 1737-1742.
Hoey, A. S., Howells, E., Johansen, J. L., Hobbs, J. P. A., Messmer, V., McCowan, D. M., Wilson, S. K. & Pratchett, M. S. (2016). Recent advances in understanding the effects of climate change on coral reefs. Diversity. 8 (2): 12.
Hughes, T. P. (1994). Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large- cale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science. 265: 1547-1551.
Hughes, T. P., Baird, A. H., Bellwood, D. R., Card, M, Connolly, S. R., Folke, C., Grosberg, R., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Jackson, J. B. C., Kleypas, J., Lough, J. M., Marshall, P., Nyström, M., Palumbi, S. R., Pandolfi, J. M., Rosen, B. & Roughgarden, J. (2003). Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs. Science. 301:929-933.
IDEAM. (2000). Pronóstico de pleamares y bajamares en la costa pacífica colombiana año 2001. Bogotá, Colombia: Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (IDEAM).
Jackson, J. B. C., Donovan, M. K., Cramer, K. L., Lam, V. V. (2014). Status and trends of caribbean coral reefs: 1970-2012.
Gland, Switzerland: Global Coral Reef MonitoringNetwork, IUCN.
Jackson, J. B. C., Kirby, M. X., Berger, W. H., Bjorndal, K. A., Botsford, L. W., Bourque, B. J., Bradbury, R. H., Cooke. R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J. A., Hughes, T. P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C. B., Lenihan, H. S., Pandolfi, J. M., Peterson, C. H., Steneck, R. S., Tegner, M. J. & Warner, R. R. (2001). Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science. 293: 629-638.
Jaramillo-González, J. (2012). Variación espacial y temporal del reclutamiento coralino en dos arrecifes del Parque Nacional Natural Gorgona (Pacífico Colombiano). Tesis de Maestría, Departamento de Biología, Universidad del Valle, Cali.
Jennings, S. & Polunin, N. (1996). Impacts of fishing on tropical ecosystems. Ambio. 25: 44-49.
Kennedy, E. V., Perry, C. T., Halloran, P. R., Iglesias-Prieto, R., Schönberg, C. H., Wisshak, M., Form, A. U., Carricart-Ganivet, J. P., Fine, M., Eakin, C. M. & Mumby, P. J. (2013). Avoiding coral reef functional collapse requires local and global action. Current Biology. 23 (10): 912-918.
Kleypas, J. A., McManus, J. W. & Meñez, L. A. (1999). Environmental limits to coral reef development: where do we draw the line? American Zoologist. 146-159.
Knowlton, N., Jackson, J. B. C. (2008). Shifting baselines, local impacts, and global change on coral reefs. PLoS Biol 6 (2):e54.
Lessios, H. A., Robertson, D. R. & Cubit, J. D. (1984). Spread of Diadema mass mortality through the Caribbean. Science. 226: 335-337.
Liddell, W. D. & Ohlhorst, S. L. (1992). Ten years of disturbance and change on a Jamaican fringing reef. Proceeding of the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium. 1: 144-150.
López-Pérez, R. A., Mora-Pérez, M. G. & Leyte-Morales, G. E. (2007). Coral (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) recruitment at Bahías de Huatulco, Western México: Implications for coral community structure and dynamics 1. Pacific Science. 61 (3): 355-369.
Loya, Y. (1978). Plotless and transect methods. In D. R. Stoddart & R. F. Johannes (eds.), Coral reefs: research methods (p. 197-217). Norwich, England: Monographs on oceanographic research 39 (5). UNESCO.
Lozano-Cortés, D. F., & Zapata, F. A. (2014). Invertebrate colonization on artificial substrates in a coral reef at Gorgona Island, Colombian Pacific Ocean. Revista de Biología Tropical. 62: 161-168.
Maté, J. L. (2003). Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific coast of Panamá. In J. Cortés (ed.), Latin America coral reefs (p. 387- 417). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science B.V.
McClanahan, T. R., Buddemeier, R. W., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. & Sammarco, P. (2008). Projecting the current trajectory for coral reefs. In N. V. C., Polunin (ed.). Aquatic Ecosystems (p. 242-262). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
McWilliams, J. P., Côté, I. M., Gill, J. A., Sutherland, W. J. & Watkinson, A. R. (2005). Accelerating impacts of temperature- nduced coral bleaching in the Caribbean. Ecology. 86: 2055-2060.
Medina-Rosas, P., Carriquiry, J. D., Cupul-Magaña, A. L. & Ixtapa, D. (2005). Recruitment of Porites (Scleractinia) on artificial substrate in reefs affected by the 1997–98 El Niño in Banderas Bay, Mexican Pacific. Ciencias Marinas. 31 (1A):103-109.
Miller, M. W. (2015). Coral disturbance and recovery in a changing world. In C. Birkeland (ed.), Coral Reefs in the Anthropocene (p. 217-230). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
Munro, J. L. (1983). Caribbean coral reef fishery resources. Manila, Philippines: ICLARM Studies and Reviews 7.
Muñoz, C. G., Wild, C. & Zapata, F. A. (2015). Drift logs are effective agents of physical coral fragmentation in a tropical eastern Pacific coral reef. Bulletin of Marine Science. 91 (3): 375-376.
Nyström, M., Folke, C. & Moberg, F. (2000). Coral reef disturbance and resilience in a human-dominated environment. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 15: 413-417.
Palacios, M. M., Muñoz, C. G. & Zapata, F. A. (2014). Fish corallivory on a pocilloporid reef and experimental coral responses to predation. Coral Reefs. 33 (3): 625-636.
Pandolfi, J. M. (1999). Response of Pleistocene coral reefs to environmental change over long temporal scales. American Zoologist. 39: 113-130.
Pandolfi, J. M., Bradbury, R. H., Sala, E., Hughes, T. P., Bjorndal, K. A., Cooke, R. G., McArdle, D., McClenachan, L., Newman, M. J. H., Paredes, G., Warner, R. R. & Jackson, J. B. C. (2003). Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems. Science. 301: 955-957.
Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D. & R Core Team. (2017). nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models.R package version 3.1-131. Available at https://CRAN.Rproject. org/package=nlme.
Porter, J. W., & Meier, O. W. (1992). Quantification of loss and change in Floridian reef coral populations. American Zoologist. 32 (6): 625-640.
R Core Team. (2016). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available in https://www.R-project.org/.
Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Reyes-Nivia, M. C., Navas-Camacho, R., Bejarano, S., Garzón-Ferreira, J. & Zapata, F. A. (2006). Status of the coral reefs of Colombia in 2003. Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium. 976-981.
Rogers, C. S. (1985). Degradation of Caribbean and Western Atlantic coral reefs and decline of associated fisheries. Proceedings of the 5th International Coral Reef Symposium. 6: 491-496.
Rouphael, A. B. & Inglis, G. J. (2002). Increased spatial and temporal variability in coral damage caused by recreational scuba diving. Ecological Applications. 12: 427-440.
Santavy, D. L. & Peters, E. C. (1997). Microbial pests: coral disease in the Western Atlantic. Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium. 1: 607-612.
Smith, C. L. (1978). Coral reef fish communities: a compromise view. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 3 (1): 109-128.
Sutherland, K. P., Porter, J. W. & Torres, C. (2004). Disease and immunity in Caribbean and Indo-Pacific zooxanthellate corals. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 266: 273-302.
Szmant, A. M. (2002). Nutrient enrichment on coral reefs: Is it a major cause of coral reef decline? Estuaries. 25: 743-766.
Vargas-Ángel, B., Zapata, F. A., Hernández, H. & Jiménez, J. M. (2001). Coral and coral reef responses to the 1997-98 El Niño event on the Pacific coast of Colombia. Bulletin of Marine Science. 69: 111-132.
Warton, D. I. & Hui, F. K. (2011). The arcsine is asinine: the analysis of proportions in ecology. Ecology. 92 (1): 3-10.
Wilkinson, C. R. (2008). Status of coral reefs of the world: 2008. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, Townsville, Australia.
Williams, E. H. & Bunkley-Williams, L. (1990). The worldwide coral reef bleaching cycle and related sources of coral mortality. Atoll Research Bulletin. 335: 1-71.
Zapata, F. A. (2001). Formaciones coralinas de isla Gorgona. In L. M. Barrios & M. López-Victoria (eds.), Gorgona Marina: Contribución al conocimiento de una isla única (p. 27-40). Santa Marta, Colombia: INVEMAR, Serie de Publicaciones Especiales 7.
Zapata, F. A. & Vargas-Ángel, B. (2003). Corals and coral reefs of the Pacific coast of Colombia. In J. Cortés (ed.), Latin America coral reefs (p. 419-447). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science B.V.
Zapata, F. A., Rodríguez-Ramírez, A., Caro-Zambrano, C. & Garzón-Ferreira, J. (2010). Mid-term coral-algal dynamics and conservation status of a Gorgona Island (Tropical Eastern Pacific) coral reef. Revista de Biología Tropical. 58: 81-94.
Zapata, F. A., Vargas-Ángel, B. & Garzón-Ferreira, J. (2001). Salud y conservación de las comunidades coralinas. In L. M. Barrios & M. López-Victoria (eds.). Gorgona Marina: Contribución al conocimiento de una isla única (p. 41-50). Santa Marta, Colombia: INVEMAR, Serie de Publicaciones Especiales 7.
Zea, S., Geister, J., Garzón-Ferreira, J. & Díaz, J. M. (1998). Biotic changes in the reef complex of San Andrés Island (Southwestern Caribbean Sea, Colombia) occurring over nearly three decades. Atoll Research Bulletin. 456:1-30.
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.
Derechos de autor 2017 Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales